Citations and Style Guides

References in Your Text   |  List of Works Cited (Print Sources)  |  List of Works Cited (Electronic Sources)  |  Additional Websites

The Modern Language Association (MLA) has established guidelines and formats on how to credit the authors of the sources you use and clarify which ideas belong to you and which belong to other sources. Generally, you document what you've used from each source by giving a short parenthetical reference within the text of your research paper and create a list of works cited that provides detailed information about your sources. This guide provides selected examples from these sources:

• MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (Ref Desk PN147 .G444)
• MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (Ref Desk LB2369.M53)

 Citing author's name in text
Tannen has argued this point (178-85).
or
This was argued by Kerrigan and Braden (210-15).

Citing author's name in reference
This point has already been argued (Tannen 178-85).
or
Others hold the opposite point of view (e.g., Kerrigan and Braden 210-15).

Citing entire works
McRae's The Literature of Science includes many examples of this trend.

Corporate author
A study prepared by the United States Department of Commerce dismissed this as being obsolete (lines 14-16).
or
By 2010, government agencies will have solved this issue (Natl. Research Council 19).

Sources without page numbers
In the television series With Feathers, the segment entitled "Chicken Amok" features some shocking moments.
or
The SlideCat database is now available via the Internet and has changed the way researchers locate slides.

Books, journals, magazines, and newspapers are identified by underlining the title. Article or chapter titles are identified by "quotation marks." "Works Cited" is the heading in the MLA style. Begin each entry flush with the left margin. If an entry runs more than one line, indent the following entry lines 5 spaces. Double space each entry.

Book by one author
Rattenbury, Ken. Duke Ellington, Jazz Composer. New Haven: Yale UP, 1990.

Book by two or more authors
Jakobson, Roman, and Linda R. Waugh. The Sound Shape of Language.
         Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1975.

An anthology or compilation
Frye, Northrop, ed. Sound and Poetry. New York: Columbia UP, 1957.

Work in an anthology
Allende, Isabel. "Toad's Mouth." Trans. Margaret Sayers Peden. A Hammock
         beneath the Mangoes: Stories from Latin America. Ed. Thomas
         Colchie. New York: Plume, 1992. 83-88.

Article from a magazine
Bazell, Robert. "Science and Society: Growth Industry." New Republic 15
         Mar. 1993: 13-14.

Article from a scholarly journal
Scotto, Peter. "Censorship, Reading, and Interpretation: A Case Study
         from the Soviet Union." PMLA 109 (1994): 61-70.

Article from a newspaper
Feder, Barnaby J. "For Job Seekers, a Toll-Free Gift of Expert Advice."
          New York Times 30 Dec. 1993, late ed.: D1+.

Government Publication
United States. Congress. Senate. Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments.
         Hearings on the "Equal Rights Amendment". 91st Cong., 2nd sess.
         S. Res. 61. Washington: GPO, 1970.

Identifying a citation from an electronic publication (e.g. the World Wide Web [WWW], an online database, or CD-ROM) may often require more information than standard print resources. Some elements may vary or be changed into something that makes sense in the context of electronic publishing. If you can’t find some of this information, cite what is available.

General Guidelines—Articles From An Online Periodical:

• author’s name (if given)
• "title of work" (if any) in quotation marks
• name of periodical (underlined)
• volume number, issue number, or other identifying number
• year of publication
• range or total number of pages or paragraphs (if available)
• title of database (underlined)

Scholarly journals available online independently or as part of an archival database of journals (e.g. JSTOR, PCI, Project Muse) provide the following additional information:

• date of access and <URL>

Maynard, W. Barksdale. "Thoreau's House at Walden." Art Bulletin 81.2
         (1999): 303-25. JSTOR. 19 Nov. 2002 < http://www.JSTOR.org>.

If the article was accessed through a library or institutional subscription service (e.g. Infotrac Expanded Academic, PsycInfo, Lexis-Nexis) provide the following additional information:

• name of database publisher/subscription service
• name and location of library or library system providing access
• date of access and URL of subscription service's home page, if known

Bueno, Eva Paulino. "Carolina Maria De Jesus in the Context of
         Testimonios: Race, Sexuality, and Exclusion." Criticism 41. 2
         (1999): 257. Infotrac Expanded Academic ASAP, Gale. 22 Sept.
         2000 <http://web4.infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/infomark/>.

General Guidelines—Online Reference Database, Scholarly Project, Professional, Personal Site:

• author’s name (if given)
• title of project (underlined)
• name of editor (if given)
• electronic publication info, including version number, date of electronic publication or last update, and name of sponsoring institution
• date of access and <URL>

Article in a Reference Database
"Colour" Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Version 99.1 1999.
         Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 December 1999 <http://www.eb.com:180/
         bol/topic?eu=117710&sctn=26>.

Scholarly Project
Dickens Project. Ed. Jon Michael Varese. 1999. University of California,
         Santa Cruz. 22 December 1999 <http://humwww.ucsc.edu/dickens>.

Professional Site
McHenry Library Instructional Services. Deborah A. Murphy. 20
         December 1999. University of California, Santa Cruz . 22
         December 1999 <http://library.ucsc.edu/ref/instruction>.

Personal Site
Cayute, Ima. Home page. 10 August 1997 <http://www.cayute.ulib.ca>.

Online Government Publication
United States. Dept. of Justice. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
         Prevention. Juvenile Crime. by Henry Smith. Dec. 2001. 29 June 2003
         <http://www.ncjrs.org/pdfiles1/191031.pdf>.

General Guidelines—Online Book

• author’s name (If editor, translator, etc., cite name followed by appropriate abbreviation.)
• title of work (underlined)
• name of editor, etc. (if relevant)
• publication information
• date of access and <URL>

Dos Passos, John. One Man's Initiation: 1917; A Novel. Ithaca:
         Cornell University Press, 1969. 1 January 1999. Internet Modern
         History Sourcebook. 22 December 1999 <http://eldred.ne.mediaone.net/
         wwone/initiation.html>.

General Guidelines—Article In An Online Periodical

• author’s name (if given)
• "title of work" (if any) in quotation marks
• name of periodical (underlined)
• volume number, issue number, or other identifying number
• date of publication
• range or total number of pages or paragraphs
• date of access and <URL>

Article in Online Journal
Carranza, L.E. "Le Corbusier and the Problems of Representation." Journal
         of Architectural Education 48.2 (1994). 22 September 1997
         <http://wwwmitpress.mit.edu/jrnls-catalog/arch-ed-abstracts/
         File:jae48- 2.html>.

Article in Online Newspaper
Ferriss, Susan. "Latino Rock - Hot Like a ‘Volcano’: Mission District Label
         1st to Focus on Trend." San Francisco Examiner 16 July 1995.
          23 Sept. 1997 <http://www.examiner.com>.

Article in Online Magazine
Mindiola, Jim. "Selena & Me: A Virtual Chicano’s Journey of Discovery."
         Frontera 2.1 (1997). 17 Sept. 1997 <http://www.mercado.com/
         frontera/current/Selena/index.htm>.

General Guidelines—Publication On CD-ROM, Disk, Or Magnetic Tape

• author’s name (If editor, translator, etc., cite name followed by appropriate abbreviation.)
• title of publication (underlined)
• name or editor, etc. (if relevant)
• publication medium (CD-ROM, etc.)
• edition, release or version (if relevent)
• place of publication
• name of publisher
• date of publication

Singh, Susheela. "Early Marriage Among Women in Developing Countries."
         International Family Planning Perspectives 22.4 (1996): 148+.
         Contemporary Women’s Issues. CD-ROM. RDS, Inc. 1992-present.

• Frequently Asked Questions about MLA Style (http://www.mla.org/style_faq)
  Includes up-to-date information about documenting Web resources from the Modern Language Association
• MLA formatting and style Guide Comprehensive guide from Purdue University on using MLA guidelines in research papers /http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/557/01/
• MLA Style: English and other Humanities http://www.dianahacker.com/resdoc/p04_c08_o.html
• Online! Guide to MLA Style http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/online/cite5.html

For other style manuals in selected disciplines consult a reference librarian for additional assistance.

Citations | Citing Electronic Materials | References | Referencing Electronic Materials

The following are samples of American Psychological Association (APA) style citations and references taken or created using the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.) and the Electronic Reference Formats Recommended by the APA. Sources used include:

• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.):
  Science & Enginnering Library - Reserves  BF76.7 .P83 2010
  McHenry Library - Reference    BF76.7 .P83 2010
• Electronic Reference Formats Recommended by the American Psychological Association http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html
• OWL at Purdue APA Formatting and Style Guide http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
  

Two Authors: When a work has two authors, both names should be cited in every parenthetical reference. Use an ampersand (&) to separate the names of authors. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within the text and use the ampersand in the parentheses.

Three to Five Authors: If a work has three or four authors, all authors should be included in the first parenthetical reference. After the first parenthetical reference, only the last name of the first author and the phrase “et al.” may be used.

     (James, Cagney, & Green, 1999) agree that...
     Subsequent mention: (James et al., 1999) also argue...

Unknown Author: If no author is given, cite the source by its title or use the first few words in the parentheses. Book and report titles are italicized or underlined; titles of articles and chapters are in quotation marks.

Organization as Author: Use the full name of the group or corporation for the author's name. Well known abbreviations may be used in subsequent references.

Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses: For two or more works, arrange them in the same order as the reference list, separated by a semi-colon.

 Citing an entire website: Give the address of the site in the text.

     Kidspsych is a wonderful interactive website for children (http://www.kidspsych.org).

Unknown Author and Unknown Date: If no author or date is given, use the title and the first few words of the title in the parentheses and use the abbreviation "n.d." (for "no date").

Sources Without Page Numbers: When an electronic source lacks page numbers, you should try to include information that will help readers find the passage being cited.

Note: These examples are single spaced. Your list of references should be double-spaced and listed alphabetically by first author's last name. For each reference, the first line is typed flush with the left margin, and any additional lines are indented as a group a few spaces to the right of the left margin (this is called a hanging indent).

Book by one author
Takaki, R. T. (1979). Iron cages : Race and culture in nineteenth-century America.
     New York, NY: Knopf.

An edited book
Jelin, E. (Ed.). (1991). Family, household, and gender relations in Latin America.
     New York, NY: Routledge, Chapman & Hall.

Article or chapter in edited book
Ruiz, V. L. (1992). Star struck: Acculturation, adolescence, and Mexican American
     women, 1920-1950. In E. West & P. Petrik (Eds.), Small worlds: Children and
     adolescents in Lawrence, America, 1850-1950 (pp.118-224). Plains, KS: University
     Press of Kansas.

Article from a scholarly journal
Martinez, E. & Palmer, S. (1993). Beyond black/white: The racisms of our time.
      Social Justice, 20, 22-35.

Article from a newspaper
For job seekers, a toll-free gift of expert advice. (1993, December 12) New
      York Times, p. D1.

Article from a magazine
Corliss, R. (1993, September 13). Pacific overtures. Time, 142, 68-70.

Government document
Commision on Special Education. (1993) Our future, our children: planning
     for the next generation (93-094-P). Washington, DC: Government
     Printing Office.

Published Conference Proceedings
Murray, L. (Ed). (2001) Endless searching: New horizons in search engine
     technology. Proceedings of the Search Engine Technology Conference,
     University of Main. Journal of the Internet, 40(suppl.), 1-402.

Note: These examples are single spaced. Your list of references should be double-spaced and listed alphabetically by first author's last name. For each reference, the first line is typed flush with the left margin, and any additional lines are indented as a group a few spaces to the right of the left margin (this is called a hanging indent).

Online Journal Articles

Article with DOI
Welch, K.E. (2005). Technical communication and physical location: Topoi and
     architecture in computer classrooms. Technical Communication
     Quarterly 14(3), 335-344. doi: 10.1207/s15427625tcq1403_12

Article without DOI
Fisher, D., Russell, D., Williams, J., & Fisher, D. (2008). Space, time & transfer in
     virtual case environments. Kairos 12(2), 127-165. Retrieved from http://
     kairos.technorhetoric.net/12.2/binder.html?topoi/fisher-etal/articleIntro.html

Electronic Books

Entire Book
Dickens, C. (1910). A tale of two cities. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/
     books?id=Pm0AAAAAYAAJ

Book Chapter
Shun, I. (1998). The invention of the martial arts: Kanao Jigorao and Kaodaokan
     judo. In S. Vlastos (Ed.), Mirror of modernity: Invented traditions of modern
     Japan (pp. 163-173).

1. Introduction
Not to be confused with a book review, a literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources (e.g. dissertations, conference proceedings) relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of each work. The purpose is to offer an overview of significant literature published on a topic.
 
2. Components
Similar to primary research, development of the literature review requires four stages:

• Problem formulation—which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues?
• Literature search—finding materials relevant to the subject being explored
• Data evaluation—determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic
• Analysis and interpretation—discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature

Literature reviews should comprise the following elements:

• An overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review
• Division of works under review into categories (e.g. those in support of a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative theses entirely)
• Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others
• Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research

In assessing each piece, consideration should be given to:

• Provenance—What are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence (e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings)?
• Objectivity—Is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
• Persuasiveness—Which of the author's theses are most/least convincing?
• Value—Are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

 
3. Definition and Use/Purpose
A literature review may constitute an essential chapter of a thesis or dissertation, or may be a self-contained review of writings on a subject. In either case, its purpose is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the subject under review
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration
• Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort
• Point the way forward for further research
• Place one's original work (in the case of theses or dissertations) in the context of existing literature

The literature review itself, however, does not present new primary scholarship.
 
An annotated example of a literature review may be found at:

http://faculty.mwsu.edu/psychology/Laura.Spiller/Experimental/sample_apa_style_litreview.pdf

Find a published, peer-reviewed literature review by searching the JSTOR database for the following:

Allen, R.C. (1996). Socioeconomic Conditions and Property Crime: A Comprehensive Review and Test of the Professional Literature.
The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 55, 293.

 
Further information on the literature review may be found in:

Cooper, H. (2010). Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis: A Step-By-Step Approach.
Los Angeles: Sage.
(call number McHenry Stacks H62 C5859)

Machi, L.A. (2009). The Literature Review: Six Steps to Success.
Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.
(call number McHenry Stacks LB1047.3 M33)

Deakin University. (2009). The Literature Review.
Geelong, Victoria, Australia: Author.
Retrieved 4th September 2009 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.deakin.edu.au/library/findout/research/litrev.php

The University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center. (2009). Writer's Handbook: Common Writing Assignments: Review of Literature.
Madison, Wisconsin: Author.
Retrieved 4th September 2009 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html

1. Definition

A bibliography is usually thought of as an alphabetical listing of books at the end of a written work (book, book chapter, or article), to which the author referred during the research and writing process. In addition to books, bibliographies can include sources such as articles, reports, interviews, or even non-print resources like Web sites, video or audio recordings. Because they may include such varied resources, bibliographies are also referred to as 'references', 'works cited' or 'works consulted' (the latter can include those titles that merely contributed to research, but were not specifically cited in text). The standard bibliography details the citation information of the consulted sources: author(s), date of publication, title, and publisher's name and location (and for articles: journal title, volume, issue and page numbers). The primary function of bibliographic citations is to assist the reader in finding the sources used in the writing of a work.

To these basic citations, the annotated bibliography adds descriptive and evaluative comments (i.e., an annotation), assessing the nature and value of the cited works. The addition of commentary provides the future reader or researcher essential critical information and a foundation for further research.

2. Composition

While an annotation can be as short as one sentence, the average entry in an annotated bibliography consists of a work's citation information followed by a short paragraph of three to six sentences, roughly 150 words in length. Similar to the literature review except for the shorter length of its entries, the annotated bibliography is compiled by:

• Considering scope: what types of sources (books, articles, primary documents, Web sites, non-print materials) will be included? how many (a sampling or a comprehensive list)? (Your instructor may set these guidelines)
• Conducting a search for the sources and retrieving them
• Evaluating retrieved sources by reading them and noting your findings and impressions
• Once a final group of sources has been selected, giving full citation data (according to the bibliographic style [e.g., APA, Chicago, MLA] prescribed by your instructor) and writing an annotation for each source; do not list a source more than once

Annotations begin on the line following the citation data and may be composed with complete sentences or as verb phrases (the cited work being understood as the subject)—again at the discretion of the instructor. The annotation should include most, if not all, of the following:

• Explanation of the main purpose and scope of the cited work
• Brief description of the work's format and content
• Theoretical basis and currency of the author's argument
• Author's intellectual/academic credentials
• Work's intended audience
• Value and significance of the work as a contribution to the subject under consideration
• Possible shortcomings or bias in the work
• Any significant special features of the work (e.g., glossary, appendices, particularly good index)
• Your own brief impression of the work

Although these are many of the same features included in a literature review, the emphasis of bibliographic annotation should be on brevity.

3. PURPOSE

Not to be confused with the abstract—which merely gives a summary of the main points of a work—the annotated bibliography both describes and evaluates those points. Whether an annotated bibliography concludes an article or book—or is even itself a comprehensive, book-length listing of sources—its purposes are the same:

• To illustrate the scope and quality of one's own research
• To review the literature published on a particular topic
• To provide the reader/researcher with supplementary, illustrative or alternative sources
• To allow the reader to see if a particular source was consulted
• To provide examples of the type of resources available on a given topic
• To place original research in a historical context

EXAMPLES (The second in complete-sentence style, the others in phrase style)

Altieri, M.A., & Anderson, M.K. (1986). An Ecological Basis for the Development of Alternative Agricultural Systems for Small Farmers in the Third World.
American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 1, 30-38.
Critiques Third World rural development strategies that promote large-scale agriculture based on uniform crop varieties. Describes Agroecosystem Analysis and Development, which stresses sustainability, equity, stability, and productivity. Lists examples of sustainable traditional farming systems and agroecological approaches to rural development.

Goulart, R. (1989). The Great Comic Book Artists, Volume 2.
New York: St Martin's Press.
The alphabetically arranged entries include one page each for the artist biography and black-and-white reprinted art. The subjective choices for inclusion reflect a pronounced American, corporate bias. This slant and the blurry comic-book reproductions render the title a cut below Goulart's usual high standards.

Larkin, C. (Ed.). (1992). The Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music.
London: Guinness.
Very comprehensive reference book of 3,296 pages (more than 10,000 entries) encompassing all styles of popular music, including jazz. Primarily biographical, but does contain record label histories. Entries from 150 to 3,000 words, though some important artists have longer entries. Most artists from UK and US, though additionally many reggae, Latin, and Afro-pop artists from outside these countries. Most entries include discography.

Further information on writing annotated bibliographies may be found in:

Harner, J.L. (2000). On Compiling an Annotated Bibliography.
New York: The Modern Language Association of America.
(call number Z1001 H33)

Ikeda, A. (2002). Writing Annotated Bibliographies.
Claremont, California: Claremont Graduate University Writing Center.
Retrieved 7th September 2004 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.cgu.edu/pages/836.asp.

Robert E. Kennedy Library. (2001). Writing an Annotated Bibliography.
San Luis Obispo, California: California Polytechnic State University.
Retrieved 11th July 2002 from the World Wide Web: http://www.lib.calpoly.edu/research/guides/bibliography.html.

Stacks, G. and Karper, E. (2001). Annotated Bibliographies.
West Lafayette, Indiana: Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University.
Retrieved 11th July 2002 from the World Wide Web:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_annotatedbib.html.