A Luta Continua: African Liberation Movement Posters

A Luta Continua: African Liberation Movement Posters
from the Collection of David H. Anthony
Summer 2002
McHenry Library

During the nineteen fifties and sixties the vast majority of former European colonies in Africa achieved their independence from their erstwhile "mother countries." Viewed continentally, this can be said to have dated from 1952, when the Free Officers Movement of Egypt ousted King Farouk and created a Republic. South of the Sahara, the first African State to achieve independence was Ghana, known as the Gold Coast during the colonial period, whose first independent Prime Minister was Kwame Nkrumah, who led his fellow Ghanaians to freedom in 1957. From 1958-1961 a spate of other territories followed suit, seeking to disengage from the rule of Britain, France, Spain and Belgium. Yet there were holdouts. The Portuguese-ruled colonies of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau, and the white-minority ruled South Africa were among exceptions to the pattern of "decolonization" which had been set in motion during 1960, "Africa year" when British Prime Minister Harold MacMillan declared that "the winds of change are blowing across the African continent." South Africa, Portugal and in 1965 the small but minerally-rich polity of Southern Rhodesia made clear their opposition to African majority rule, and showed a willingness to use violence to prevent this from occurring. While most Africans would have preferred not to have to resort to the expedient of taking up arms, the example of the bloody Algerian Revolution against French minority rule was still fresh in many minds by the early nineteen sixties. Starting in 1960, an uprising occurred in Angola against Portuguese rule. This took shape four years after the founding of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola, whose Portuguese acronym was MPLA. Later on in that decade similar movements arose in Guinea-Bissau, the PAIGC, (Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde) and the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (Frelimo). 1960 was also the year that the armed struggle began in earnest in South Africa, under the auspices of the African National Congress and its rival, the Pan-Africanist Congress. By 1965, with Southern Rhodesia's UDI or Unilateral Declaration of Independence, Africans seeking a voice in Rhodesian politics gravitated to the Zimbabwe African People's Union and later, its own schismatic rival, the Zimbabwe African National Union. By the late sixties, both groups would mount military wings which took to the bush to fight against Rhodesia's brutal security forces. The nineteen sixties in Southern Africa, therefore, became synonymous with the era of liberation wars or armed struggle.

The posters in this collection represent the intensity of the conflicts being waged in those years, when combatants and their supporters weighed in for the long haul. This exhibit represents a cross-section of politically engaged poster art from the African Revolution. While not comprehensive, it is evocative of the spirit of those times and the commitment of supporters of African majority rule. —David H. Anthony, Associate Professor of History

This exhibit also features material from Special Collections on the anti-apartheid/divestment movement at UCSC, and related books from the University Library’s collection. We would like to thank the Library’s Special Collections and Preservation departments for their assistance, and library staff member Cheryl Dandridge for the loan of several books from her personal collection. —Irene Reti, Library Exhibit Coordinator

View gallery of posters here.

Our History Did Not Begin in Chains Amilcar Cabral of Guinea-Bissau, 1921-1973

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One of the greatest of modern theoreticians of the African Revolution was Amilcar Cabral, the multilingual Portuguese-trained agronomist who helped to found the PAIGC, the Party for the Independence of Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde. After graduating from agronomy school he used his training to great effect by getting to know every inch of his beloved Guinea-Bissau, making intensive and detailed reconnaisances of all of the places, peoples and customs of the nation.

Cabral saw the revolution through against Portuguese minority rule in Bissau but had his brilliant life and career cut short in 1973 when he was assassinated at the hands of Portuguese agents. By that time he had become well known both in and beyond Bissau and was the author of several posthumously published texts, among the most well known of which were "Revolution in Guinea" and "Return to the Source." Fluent in the Romance languages of French, Spanish and Portuguese, he was less comfortable in English, and relatively few of his writings have been translated for Anglophone audiences.
Those in McHenry include the following:

Cabral, Amilcar, 1921-1973.
Return to the source; selected speeches. Edited by Africa Information Service. New York, Monthly Review Press [1974, c1973].
UCSC McHenry DT613.75.C32
Cabral, Amilcar, 1921-1973.
Revolution in Guinea; selected texts. Translated and edited by Richard Handyside. New York, Monthly Review Press [1970, c1969].
UCSC McHenry DT613.62.C3213
Cabral, Amilcar, 1921-1973.
Unity and struggle : speeches and writings / Amilcar Cabral ; texts selected by the PAIGC ; translated by Michael Wolfers. New York : Monthly Review Press, c1979.
UCSC McHenry DT613.75.C335 1979

ANC Radio Freedom

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With the advent of the armed struggle, it became necessary to create alternative sources of information for both ANC cadres and the liberation support community at large. This began modestly, with printed matter and gradually came to include clandestine radio broadcasts mounted from exile. A key site from which to air programs aimed at cadres and their allies was Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, where the ANC and most other liberation movements maintained their external headquarters.

This poster advertises a fundraising event intended to support Radio Freedom. Radio Freedom was the underground radio station of the ANC. UC Berkeley's Radio Freedom website describes the station this way: "Founded in 1967, Radio Freedom would eventually broadcast into South Africa daily from neighboring [or Frontline] African states." The Radio Freedom website features "selections from broadcasts out of Lusaka Zambia, circa 1985." It further adds that "The insurrectionary character of that period is reflected in both the form and content of the broadcasts."

For further information and audio examples see:
http://www.polisci.berkeley.edu/Courses/CoursePages/ps146/radio_freedom.html

SWAPO: The People Armed

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SWAPO, the South West Africa People's Organization, was the principal movement fighting for majority rule in Namibia, as the South Africa-administered territory of "Southwest Africa" was known by progressives. A German Colony from 1886-1914, it became a League of Nations Mandate in 1914 under the protection of Great Britain. By 1945, however, South West Africa/Namibia and other formed League of Nations Mandates were transformed into United Nations Trust Territories, and South West Africa was transferred to the custody of South Africa. In 1960 SWAPO was founded and soon thereafter became a home for democratic forces seeking to gain greater autonomy for Africans in matters that concerned them. Instead, the South African government extended apartheid to South West Africa, curtailing African participation in any level of self-determination. As in South Africa, reform-minded leaders were routinely harassed, detained, arrested, tortured and assassinated. By August 26, 1966, the year that the United Nations revoked South Africa's United Nations Trust, SWAPO voted to launch its own armed struggle. This poster commemorates that decision.

Sobukwe

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Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe (1924-1977) was the head of the Pan-Africanist Congress of Azania, a group that broke away from the African National Congress in 1959. The PAC disagreed philosophically with the ANC over several key issues. These ranged from the centrality of Africans in the fight for freedom, to the time and method whereby the armed struggle or liberation war would be undertaken. The nature and content of these debates was intense and complex, and they have yet to be resolved. "Africanism," as the PAC's position is frequently characterized, is one of the core constituents of black consciousness, the focus of the work of the martyred Steve Biko. Sobukwe and his organization occupied separate terrain from that of the ANC and are often described inaccurately as a minor current in the South African liberation struggle. The PAC continues to exist as a political organization which has made inroads in the Eastern and Western Cape by fielding candidates such as the charismatic Patricia De Lille, a mixed-race politician representing a vibrant constituency. This has marked a kind of PAC renaissance. The domestic conflict between the PAC and the ANC inevitably became wrapped up in the Cold War combat between the Soviet Union and the United States. This and a number of dramatic mistakes by some of its other leading figures such as the late flamboyant Potlako Leballo, left them open to criticism by ANC leaders. The quality of the paper on which this poster was made is clearly not comparable to the superior materials typical of ANC posters makes this piece far more fragile.

2nd FESTAC

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FESTAC stands for Festival of African Arts and Culture. This arose as part of a larger trend of festivals linking African and African-Derived Peoples in the African Diaspora through international meetings that explored politics and the arts within a larger context mixing education and entertainment. The second FESTAC occurred in Nigeria in 1977. This poster was provided by the artist, Babatunde Folayemi who lived in Tanzania at the same time as David Anthony.

South African Women’s Day 1978

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This poster commemorates the twenty-second anniversary of the August 9, 1956 women's protest against the pass system led by 20,000 ANC Women's League in Pretoria. The vernacular slogan of this multi-ethnic, multi-racial gathering was "Wanti'nt'abafazi Wathi'nti'mbokodo...uzakufa" meaning, "You have touched the women, you have dislodged a bolder, you will be crushed" or, as it is also often translated, "When you strike the women, you have struck a rock!" This major event has been celebrated annually thereafter, with rallies, symposia and meetings of every kind throughout South Africa. The tradition remains strong today.

Free Nelson Mandela

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Worldwide demands for the release of Nelson R. Mandela from imprisonment began to shape following the infamous Rivonia Treason Trial of 1963. As time went on and an international anti-apartheid movement grew, demands for Mandela's release, and all the scores of freedom fighters imprisoned by the South African apartheid regime became hallmarks of the global anti-apartheid movement from the nineteen sixties through his actual release in 1990. Initially Mandela, along with both rank and file and leadership cadres from the ANC, PAC, NEUM (Non-European Unity Movement) SACP (South African Communist Party) and other anti-apartheid activists, affiliated and unaffiliated were held in Robben Island now a museum. Mandela and other key leaders were transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in 1982. On 31 January 1985 the State President of South Africa, P W Botha, speaking in parliament, offered Mandela his freedom on condition that he 'unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon'. This was the sixth such offer, earlier ones stipulating that he accept exile in the Transkei. His daughter Zinzi read Mandela's reply to this offer to a mass meeting in Jabulani Stadium, Soweto, on 10 February, 1985. This was the text of his response as read publicly by Zinzi:

I am a member of the African National Congress. I have always been a member of the African National Congress and I will remain a member of the African National Congress until the day I die. Oliver Tambo is much more than a brother to me. He is my greatest friend and comrade for nearly fifty years. If there is any one amongst you who cherishes my freedom, Oliver Tambo cherishes it more, and I know that he would give his life to see me free. There is no difference between his views and mine.
I am surprised at the conditions that the government wants to impose on me. I am not a violent man. My colleagues and I wrote in 1952 to Malan asking for a round table conference to find a solution to the problems of our country, but that was ignored. When Strijdom was in power, we made the same offer. Again it was ignored. When Verwoerd was in power we asked for a national convention for all the people in South Africa to decide on their future. This, too, was in vain.
It was only then, when all other forms of resistance were no longer open to us, that we turned to armed struggle. Let Botha show that he is different to Malan, Strijdom and Verwoerd. Let him renounce violence. Let him say that he will dismantle apartheid. Let him unban the people's organisation, the African National Congress. Let him free all who have been imprisoned, banished or exiled for their opposition to apartheid. Let him guarantee free political activity so that people may decide who will govern them.
I cherish my own freedom dearly, but I care even more for your freedom. Too many have died since I went to prison. Too many have suffered for the love of freedom. I owe it to their widows, to their orphans, to their mothers and to their fathers who have grieved and wept for them. Not only I have suffered during these long, lonely, wasted years. I am not less life-loving than you are. But I cannot sell my birthright, nor am I prepared to sell the birthright of the people to be free. I am in prison as the representative of the people and of your organisation, the African National Congress, which was banned.
What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people remains banned? What freedom am I being offered when I may be arrested on a pass offence? What freedom am I being offered to live my life as a family with my dear wife who remains in banishment in Brandfort? What freedom am I being offered when I must ask for permission to live in an urban area? What freedom am I being offered when I need a stamp in my pass to seek work? What freedom am I being offered when my very South African citizenship is not respected?
Only free men can negotiate. Prisoners cannot enter into contracts. Herman Toivo ja Toivo, when freed, never gave any undertaking, nor was he called upon to do so. I cannot and will not give any undertaking at a time when I and you, the people, are not free.Your freedom and mine cannot be separated. I will return.

It was his final destination as a prisoner before his release by F. W. de Klerk. By 1990, de Klerk was careful to make certain that Mandela's freedom would be unconditional. The following McHenry sources help us to further understand Mandela:

Benson, Mary.
Nelson Mandela : the man and the movement / Mary Benson ; foreword by Desmond M. Tutu. 1st ed. New York : W.W. Norton & Co., c1986.
UCSC McHenry DT779.95.M36B46 1986
DeLuca, Anthony R.
Gandhi, Mao, Mandela, and Gorbachev : studies in personality, power, and politics / Anthony R. DeLuca. Westport, Ct. : Praeger, 2000.
UCSC McHenry D443 .D437 2000
For Nelson Mandela / edited by Jacques Derrida, Mustapha Tlili. New York : Seaver Books, c1987.
UCSC McHenry PN6071.A77F67 1987
Gutteridge, William Frank, 1919-
South Africa : potential of Mbeki's presidency / William Gutteridge. Leamington Spa, Warwickshire [England] : Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, c1999.
Series title: Conflict studies ; no. 319/320.
UCSC McHenry D839.3 .C6 v.319-320
VIDEORECORDING
Mandela / an Island Pictures presentation ; a Clinica Estetico production ;
directed by Jo Menell & Angus Gibson ; producers, Jonathan Demme, Edward
Saxon, Jo Menell. [New York] : Island Pictures, c1995.
1 videocassette (118 min.) : sd., col. with b&w sequences ; 1/2 in.
VHS ; hi-fi stereo.
UCSC McHenry VT6542 Film & Music
Mandela, Nelson, 1918-
I am prepared to die. 2d ed. [London] : Christian Action Publications,
[1964?].
Series title: A Christian Action pamphlet.
UCSC McHenry DT763.M35 1964
Mandela, Nelson, 1918-
Intensify the struggle to abolish apartheid : speeches, 1990 / Nelson
Mandela ; [edited by Greg McCartan]. 1st ed. New York, NY : Pathfinder,
1990.
UCSC McHenry DT1949.M35A5 1990 Reference
Mandela, Nelson, 1918-
Long walk to freedom : the autobiography of Nelson Mandela. 1st ed.
Boston : Little, Brown, c1994.
UCSC McHenry DT1949.M35 A28 1994
Mandela, Nelson, 1918-
Nelson Mandela speaks : forging a Democratic, nonracial South Africa / by
Nelson Mandela ; edited by Steve Clark. New York : London : Pathfinder
Press, 1993.
UCSC McHenry DT1756.M36 1993
Mandela, Nelson, 1918-
Nelson Mandela : the struggle is my life : his speeches and writings
brought together with historical documents and accounts of Mandela in
prison by fellow-prisoners. Rev. ed. London : IDAF Publications, 1990.
UCSC McHenry DT1949.M35 A3 1990
Mandela, Nelson, 1918-
No easy walk to freedom : articles, speeches and trial addresses of
Nelson Mandela / with a new foreword by Ruth First. London : Heinemann
Educational, 1973.
Series title: African writers series ;.
UCSC McHenry DT779.7.M35 1973
Mandela, Nelson, 1918-
One nation, one country / Nelson Mandela. New York, N.Y. : Phelps-Stokes
Fund, c1990.
Series title: Statements--occasional papers of the Phelps-Stokes Fund ;
no. 4.
UCSC McHenry DT779.952.M36 1990
Mandela, Nelson, 1918-
The struggle is my life : his speeches and writings brought together with
historical documents and accounts of Mandela in prison by fellow-prisoners
/ Nelson Mandela. [Rev. ed.]. London : International Defence and Aid Fund
for Southern Africa, 1986.
UCSC McHenry DT779.95.M36A57 1986
Mandela, Tambo, and the African National Congress : the struggle against
apartheid, 1948-1990 : a documentary survey / edited by Sheridan Johns, R. Hunt Davis, Jr. New York ; Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1991.
UCSC McHenry DT1757.M36 1991
Meer, Fatima.
Higher than hope : the authorized biography of Nelson Mandela / Fatima Meer. 1st U.S. ed. New York : Harper & Row, [1990].
UCSC McHenry DT1949.M35M44 1990 Library has: c. 2 only.
Meredith, Martin.
Nelson Mandela : a biography / Martin Meredith. London : Hamish
Hamilton, 1997.
UCSC McHenry DT1949.M35 M47 1997
Nelson Mandela and the rise of the ANC / compiled and edited by Jurgen
Schadeberg ; photographs by Ian Berry ... [et al.] ; text by Benson Dyantyi
... [et al.] ; [forewords by Walter M. Sisulu and Helen Joseph]. London :
Bloomsbury, 1990.
UCSC McHenry DT1949.M35N431 1990
Ottaway, David. Chained together : Mandela, De Klerk, and the struggle to remake South
Africa / David Ottaway. 1st ed. New York : Times Books, c1993.
UCSC McHenry DT1970.O87 1993 Pinchuck, Tony.
Introducing Mandela / Tony Pinchuck. Barton, Cambridge [UK] : Totem
Books : Lanham, Md. : Distributed to the trade in the U.S. by National Book Network, 1994.
UCSC McHenry DT779.95.M36 P56 1994
Sampson, Anthony.
Mandela : the authorized biography / Anthony Sampson. 1st American ed. New York : Knopf : Distributed by Random House, 1999.
UCSC McHenry DT1974 .S26 1999

Mandela: The Struggle Is My Life

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This poster commemorates the publication of a collection of writing and speeches by Nelson Mandela that first appeared in 1978 while he was still incarcerated. Initially published by the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa, on the occasion of Mandela's sixtieth birthday, it was later republished by IDAF in 1986 and more recently in 1990 by both IDAF and Pathfinder Press.

http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0873485939/avsearch-df1-2-20/103-6546773-8044613
http://logicalthinker2.tripod.com/mandela.html
http://www.nelson-mandela.info/nelson-mandela/
http://malaspina.edu/~mcneil/mandela.htm

Nelson Mandela: The Struggle is My Life
Format, Length, Colour: 45 min
Director: Lionel Ngakane
Producer: Lionel Ngakane
Shooting Location (Country): South Africa
Country used for Post Production: South Africa

Victory to the People of Southern Africa --- Steve Biko Did Not Die In Vain!

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This poster commemorates the life and martyrdom in police custody of Bantu Stephen Biko (1946-1977). Biko, born in the Eastern Cape following the end of World War Two, founder and principal theoretician of the Black Consciousness Movement, sought to find an intermediate path that would bridge the gaps between the rival liberation movements the ANC and PAC while also integrating insights gleaned from the diasporic North American Civil Rights and Black Power Movements from the 1950's, sixties and seventies. Since both PAC and ANC were banned and therefore forced to operate clandestinely, with internal and external political and military wings, Biko intended for his BCM to fill what he perceived as a local vacuum. A widely traveled and highly respected leader, Biko was murdered while detained by the South African police in October 1977. The photograph was taken during his funeral. His legacy survives in books published posthumously, "Biko" by Donald Woods (later the motion picture "Cry Freedom" starring Denzel Washington and Kevin Kline, "I Write What I like" (edited by Aelred Stubbs) and "Steve Biko: Black Consciousness in South Africa," (Millard Arnold, editor) as well as famous song written and performed by Peter Gabriel and the 1987 Filmmaker's Library documentary "Biko: Breaking the Silence." Most importantly, his memory lives on in the work of people who remain dedicated to constructing a non-racialist, democratic New South Africa. His KingWilliamsTown house is now a museum.

The following sources about Biko are to be found in McHenry Library:
Bernstein, Hilda.
No. 46- Steve Biko / by Hilda Bernstein. London : International Defence
and Aid Fund, 1978. UCSC McHenry KTL41.B55B47 1978
SOUND RECORDING
Biko, Steve, 1946-1977.
An interview with Steven Biko. Los Angeles, Calif. : Pacifica Radio
Archive, 1986.
1 sound cassette (24 min.) : 1 7/8 ips.
Bounds of possibility : the legacy of Steve Biko & Black consciousness /
edited by N. Barney Pityana ... [et al.]. Cape Town : D. Philip ; London ;
Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey : Zed Books, 1991.
UCSC McHenry DT779.8.B48B68 1991
UCSC McHenry LS8898 Film & Music
Juckes, Tim J.
Opposition in South Africa : the leadership of Z.K. Matthews, Nelson
Mandela, and Stephen Biko / Tim J. Juckes. Westport, Conn. : Praeger,
1995.
UCSC McHenry DT1938 .J83 1995
Woods, Donald, 1933-
Biko / Donald Woods. New York : Paddington Press, c1978.
UCSC McHenry DT779.8.B48W66 Library has: c. 1-2.
Biko, Steve, 1946-1977.
Steve Biko : Black consciousness in South Africa / Millard Arnold, ed. 1st ed. New York : Random House, c1978.
UCSC McHenry KTL41.C66B55 1978
Synopsis: A documentary by one of South Africa's pioneering Black film makers on the the life and times of Nelson Mandela and his role in the struggle against apartheid.

March 2, Day of Angolan Women

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This refers to the work of OMA (Organização de Mulheres Angolanas), the Organization of Angolan Women. While material on this MPLA grouping is hard to come by in English, Paolo Jorge, former director of MPLA's Department of Information and Propaganda (DIP) gave this description of OMA in 1973:
As for Angolan women, they are playing a very great role...and not only on the action committees. In all activities, all aspects of our revolution, women are present. They not only direct the activities of OMA, the Angolan Women's Organization, but are working in the educational field as teachers, in our Medical Assistance Services as doctors and nurses, in logistics and transport as carriers, in the preparation of clothing and uniforms, and in the military field as guerrillas, taking part in attacks and ambushes against the Portuguese forces. We are even trying to increase the participation of women in the military aspect, as their participation in this area is not yet great enough; and also in the area of leadership, though at present we have several women on the Comité Director. Finally, in OMA they are able to provide leadership to our Angolan women, to mobilize and organize the women in our villages and towns to play an increasing number of important roles in the liberation struggle. Recently the OMA held a number of seminars in order to analyze how the women could participate better and the preparation and training they needed in order to put them on an equal footing with the men---according to the MPLA principle of struggling for the full emancipation of Angolan women.
—Paolo Jorge, Interviews In Depth. MPLA Angola #4. (Richmond, British Columbia, Canada: Liberation Support Movement, March 1973) from DH Anthony's collection]

VIDEORECORDING

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Angola e a nossa terra = Angola is our country / filmed in association with TPA (Televisao Popular de Angola) ; made in co-operation with OMA (Organizacao da Mulher Angolana) ; director, Jenny Morgan. New York, NY :
Distributed by Women Make Movies, 1988.
1 videocassette (45 min.) : sd., col. ; 1/2 in.
VHS format.
UCSB Main Lib HQ1805 .A635 1988 Curriculum Lab
Angolan women building the future : from national liberation to women's emancipation / organization of Angolan Women ; translated by Marga Holness. London : Zed Books ; Totowa, N.J. : US distributor, Biblio Distribution Center, 1984. Series title: Third World studies.
UCSC McHenry HQ1805.A5313 1984
Campbell, Horace. Militarism, warfare and the search for peace in Angola : the contribution of Angolan women / Horace Campbell. Pretoria : Africa Institute of South Africa, 2001.
UCSC McHenry DT1 .A358 v.63

Jorge Rebelo

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Jorge "Domingo" Rebelo Chikoty, a militant cadre, seasoned combatant and major ideologue in FRELIMO, the Mozambique Liberation Front, later Minister of Information (1975-1980), became the subject of two major cabinet reshufflings in April 1980, when he and former Minster of Planning and Development Marcellino dos Santos were reassigned by President Samora Machel to stamp out corruption.

In 1982, Major General Rebelo became a member of the Political Bureau, Frelimo Central Committee, Secretary for Ideological Organization and First Secretary of the Maputo Committee. In 1983 in addition to the Political Bureau he became part of the new Party Secretariat. On 30 July 1989 at the Frelimo Congress he was named to the Central Committee Secretariat and the Political Bureau. On August 30, 1991, as outgoing member of the political commission Rebelo became deputy foreign minister. On 7 May 1999 he was renamed deputy foreign affairs minister.

The Information Ministry was abolished in 1994. By 2000 Rebelo, who once backed a highly restrictive government press policy did not advocate restoring it, but rather expressed satisfaction that greater journalistic freedom then prevailed.

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